LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




I 



I 



INDIAN NOTES 
AND MONOGRAPHS 



A SERIES OF PUBLICA- 
TIONS RELATING TO THE 
AMERICAN ABORIGINES 



NATIVE HOUSES OF WESTERN 
NORTH AMERICA 



T. T. WATERMAN and COLLABORATORS 



Edited by F. W. Hodge 





BY 



NEW YORK 



MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN 



HEYE FOUNDATION 



1921 



NATIVE HOUSES OF WEST- 
ERN NORTH AMERICA 



BV 



T. T. WATERMAN and COLLABO- 
RATORS 



5 



CONTENTS PAGE 

Introduction 7 

Types of dwellings in North America 8 

Types of houses from the standpoint of 

distribution 12 

Area 1 . The Aleutian islands, together with 

western Alaska 18 

Area 2. Inland from Stikine river to San 

Francisco bay . . . . 19 

Areas 3, 4, 5. Rectangular plank-houses of 

the Pacific coast 23 

The possible relations of the rectangular 

plank-house to the conical pit-dwelling. . 30 

Pit-structures in other areas 34 

Conclusions 42 

Tabulations 44 

Area 1 44 

Area 2. 47 

Area 3 53 

Area 4 57 

Area 5 61 

Area 6 68 

Area 7 71 

Area 8 73 

Area 9 77 

Bibliography 78 

Notes 97 



INDIAN NOTES 



NATIVE HOUSES OF WESTERN 
NORTH AMERICA 

By T. T. Wateeman and Collaboeatoes 

1NTEODUCTION 

THE present paper represents a sur- 
vey of the literature which con- 




cerns the tribes of western North 
America, for passages referring 



to types of habitations. Four investigators 
joined the present writer in the enterprise: 
Ruth Greiner, Geraldine Coffin, Margaret 
Coffin, and Herbert C. Fish. The project 
was undertaken as part of the work of a 
seminar in Ethnography at the University of 
Washington. Mrs LeFay Davy Packard of 
the University of Oregon cooperated during 
one semester. Mr Fish was formerly Curator 
of the Historical Society of North Dakota, 
and has an intimate and somewhat extensive 
acquaintance with Plains tribes. The re- 
sults here summarized are based largely on 



INDIAN NOTES 



8 


NATIVE HOUSES 




a permanent collection of books in the Uni- 
versity of Washington, known as the North- 
west Collection, assembled over a period 
of years by the Associate Librarian, Mr 
Charles Wesley Smith. The present results 
do not, of course, exhaust the material 
on the region. On the other hand, the 
most representative sources have been in- 
cluded, except a few which were not lo- 
cally available. Specifically, Boas' "Tribes 
of the North Pacific Coast" {Annual Arch- 
er ological Report, Toronto, 1905) and Sar- 
fert's "Haus und Dorf . . :" (Archiv 
fur Anthropologic, n. P., Band 7, Heft 2 
und 3, 1908) have not been consulted. All 
citations in the following pages refer to a 
terminal bibliography. 

TYPES OF DWELLINGS IN NORTH AMERICA 

The use among the North American In- 
dian tribes of various kinds of dwellings has 
always been recognized as presenting inter- 
esting problems. The number of different 
forms is very large. In a brief article on 
the subject "Habitations" in the Handbook 
of American Indians, 1 Cyrus Thomas men- 




INDIAN NOTES 



CLASSIFICATION 


9 


tions no fewer than thirty-three types of 
houses, all employed in America north of 
Mexico; and this number could readily be 
increased by eight or ten additional forms. 
It seems possible, however, that the number 
of actually distinct types of structure is not 
so large as such a list would indicate. 
Thus, obvious points of resemblance can be 
found between forms of houses which this 
author mentions as independent types. To 
illustrate this, I have made the following 
tabulation, in which there are grouped those 
forms of houses that show obvious points 
of similarity. The first column supplies 
catch titles for the structures, while the 
second indicates the people by whom the 
structure is used. 

Primitive North American habitations grouped 
according to similarity in construction, se- 
lected largely from Professor Thomas' article 
on "Habitations." 

1. Structures of masonry (stone or adobe): 

CMiff-rl wpllin ere; ^prlpntflrv triHpc: r»f 

V^llU. dVVCllllIga OCU.C11 Ld± y LHUCo KJi. 

Pueblos the Southwest 
Kivas 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





10 


NATIVE HOUSES 




2. Temporary shelters: 

"Plateau" type of lodge, Nez Perce 
framework of poles cov- 
ered with mats 

"Wickiups" (shelter of Paiute 
poles covered with 
brush) 

3. Houses with a permanent framework of poles, 
covered with bark, thatch, mats, or other light 
material: 

"Long-houses" Iroquois 
Elongate houses with Virginia tribes 

bowed roofs 
Palmetto houses Louisiana tribes 
Hemispherical bark- Winnebago 

lodges ("wigwams") 
" Grass-lodges" Wichita 
Conical bark-lodges Ojibwa 
A-shaped lodge on piles Seminole 

4. Houses consisting of a pit, roofed with beams, 

covered with earth: 

Dome-shaped earth- Maidu 
lodges of the Sacra- 
mento valley 

Semi-subterranean lodges Shushwap 
of the Plateau 




INDIAN NOTES 



CLASSIFICATION 


11 


Timber houses of the Alaska tribes 

Western Eskimo 
Circular pit-houses of Prehistoric peo- 

New Mexico, entrance pie of Luna, 

at the top (described New Mexico 

by Hough) 

Rectangular pit-houses of Prehistoric peo- 
the Plains, entrance at pie of eastern 
the top (described by Nebraska 
Steins) 

5. Rectangular houses of planks: 

Rectangular plank-houses Haida 

of southern Alaska 
Rectangular plank-houses Songish 

of the Puget Sound 

region 

Rectangular plank-houses Yurok 
of northern California 

Such an excursion as this into the field of 
classification involves no detailed consid- 
eration of the construction of these houses. 
Yet the obvious facts of geographical dis- 
tribution wonlH cinccrpQt that trip rpspm - 

blance is not a mere matter of chance. Thus, 
a "grass-lodge" is a grass-lodge, and a "wig- 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





12 


NATIVE HOUSES 




warn" is something different. Yet the fun- 
damental idea, embodying a permanent 
framework of poles covered with bark, or 
thatch, or mats, or grass, or palmetto-leaves, 
characterizes both the grass-lodge and the 
wigwam, and a whole series of other houses 
besides. If the distribution of each form 
could be plotted on a map, the occurrences 
of each type would be found to run pretty 
well together. This might lend color to a 
theory that the wigwam, grass-lodge, and 
various other houses, go back to one funda- 
mental type of structure, modified by vari- 
ous factors in various areas. 

TYPES OF HOUSES FROM THE STANDPOINT OP 
DISTRIBUTION 

It is important to know in all cases whether 
similar houses existing in adjoining areas rep- 
resent independent invention or the spread- 
ing of a concept from a common center. 
The purpose of the present paper is to 
examine the houses west of the Mississippi 

ri^pr from tVnci nnint r»f vipw T'Vip nnprv 

thus proposed is one aspect of an old and 
somewhat shop-worn topic. The particu- 




INDIAN NOTES 



I 

I 



DISTRIBUTION 


13 


lar matter of finding classifications of some 
kind into which North American houses will 
fall, is not itself a novel enterprise. Cyrus 
Thomas, in the article mentioned, classifies 
North American habitations as " communal 
houses" and "single dwellings." In this 
matter he follows Lewis H. Morgan. Noth- 
ing seems to come of this method of approach; 
that is, communal dwellings seem to be 
scattered about over the various tribes of 
the continent, in a more or less chance way. 
Wissler in his recent book goes a good deal 
further. He takes up, though briefly, the 
matter of classification, from the standpoint 
of resemblances in construction. He men- 
tions the " house with the bowed roof" 
(Virginia), the Seminole " pile-dwelling" 
(Florida), the "oval dome-shaped house 
plastered with mud" (Arizona), and the 
Iroquois "long house" (Great Lakes region), 
as though the matter of possible relationship 
were lurking in his mind. His passage on 
houses is brief. It would be extremely 
interesting to know in detail what his 
ideas are. He certainly implies relation- 
ship (1) between the conical skin tent or 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





14 


NATIVE HOUSES 




tipi of the Plains and the "conical, exca- 
vated, earth-covered lodge of the Navaho;" 

(2) between the plank-houses of the north 
Pacific coast and those of California; and 

(3) between the earth-covered pit-dwellings 
of California, those of the interior North- 
west, the subterranean house of the Alaska 
Eskimo, and the stone houses of the Arctic 
east of the Mackenzie. The present paper 
is an effort to follow the problem along the 
lines pointed out by Wissler. . He remarks 
that there are not sufficient data at hand 
for detailed comparisons between struc- 
tures. That is undoubtedly true, for the 
general problem. The present contribu- 
tion essays only to indicate the present state 
of our information concerning one area. 

It may be well to remark at the outset 
that the keynote as regards the habitations 
of the western half of the continent seems 
to be the distribution of a peculiar type of 
structure, the "earth-covered pit-dwelling.'* 
Pit-dwellings are known to be of wide dis- 
tribution in America. Jochelson. in a fa- 
mous paper of some years ago. advanced the 

fnrt hpr rnnrliiiinn f nn f fno pq rf h _ ctpq r\i 
lUIlUCI LUllLIUMUll LI Id. L L11C Cell 111 lULlgCb Ul 




INDIAN NOTES 



DISTRIBUTION 


15 . 


the whole continent were derived from those 
of Asia, 2 indicating, somewhat hastily, the 
principal facts of their distribution. There 
is a good deal of additional information, 
some of which is listed here, which he might 
well have included. It seems to make his 
theory somewhat more persuasive. Pro- 
fessor Boas referred at an even earlier date 
to the distribution of earth-lodges. 3 The 
evidence remains unsatisfactory to the 
present day, for the simple reason that the 
facts have never been properly recorded. 
For many vicinities we must depend on 
helter-skelter remarks, and in regard to 
some regions we have nothing to depend 
upon at all. We may, however, look at 
the facts, if merely for the sake of defining 
the problem. 

Our starting-point is the fact that under- 
ground houses are in common use in north- 
eastern Asia. Some tribes of the extreme 
northeast (the Koryak and Kamchadal) have 
elaborate underground dwellings. They 
are built over a circular pit from a meter to 
a meter and a half deep. The roof is coni- 
cal, made of poles laid horizontally. This 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





16 


NATIVE HOUSES 




roof is supported in the center by four posts. 
The wall is double, the planks or poles ex- 
tending vertically in most houses, though 
one series or layer may be horizontal. A 
square smoke-hole in the center of the roof 
serves as a winter doorway. The visitor 
descends on a log with holes cut for the 
feet, which serves as a ladder. A side 
entrance consisting of a covered passage is 
used in the summer, and has no interest 
for the present investigation. We may 
regard these as the principal features of the 
structure. Concerning the distribution in 
Asia of this and similar underground houses, 
a good deal has been said by Jochelson and 
others, and there is nothing to be added here. 
The present undertaking is to find what 
tribes in America have houses resembling 
this Asiatic structure. It is important to 
indicate also the nature and extent of cor- 
respondences, and to discuss the geograph- 
ical position of the tribes involved. It is 
most convenient to take the matter up by 
areas. The areas which we will deal with 
in the present paper are as follows! 




INDIAN NOTES 



I 



DISTRIBUTION 


17 


(1) The Aleutian islands and western 
Alaska. 

(2) Inland from Stikine river to San 
Francisco bay. 

(3) The coastal region occupied by the 
Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, and 
northern Salish. 

(4) Western and southern Vancouver 
island, Puget sound, and the coast of Wash- 
ington as far south as the limit of Quilliute 
territory. 

(5) The Pacific coast from the Quinault 
habitat to Humboldt bay in northern 
California, inclusive. 

(6) The Southwest. 

(7) Southern California. 

(8) The Plains. 

The facts concerning the houses of each 
area are presented in the form of tabula- 
tions, which are printed at the end of this 
paper. The occurrence of each structure 
mentioned by the authorities is indicated 
by a number on an accompanying map (pi. 
i). The dates mentioned in the tabulations 
are those when the observations were made 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





18 


NATIVE HOUSES 




The information in many of the sources is 
laconic and fragmentary in the extreme. 

AREA 1. THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, TOGETHER 
WITH WESTERN ALASKA 

It will be noted, in looking at the tabu- 
lation referring to this area, that in some 
cases the resemblance to our standard 
Asiatic house dwindles away. Thus, the 
only definite information about the houses 
of Atkinson island is that they are hemi- 
spherical (whatever that means) and earth- 
covered. Nothing is said of a pit. It seems 
that correspondences are somewhat closer 
in the case of those tribes that are located 
near Asia; for example, the Aleut. Other 
things being equal, this situation would fit 
most readily into a supposition that we have 
here a form of house which has spread from 
Asia, and undergone modification by external 
circumstances or by other factors. The 
evidence is certainly meager. Additional 
observations should be made among the 
natives of this vast region before it is too 
late. Given the facts as they stand, how- 
ever, the idea of diffusion of one type of 




INDIAN NOTES 



I 



AREA TWO 


19 


structure among these tribes is a more 
plausible explanation of the existing resem- 
blances, than any other. 

AREA 2. INLAND FROM STIKINE RIVER TO 
SAN FRANCISCO BAY 

We have next to consider an area which 
is, on the whole, an interior region, extending 
southward from the mouth of Stikine river 
in Alaska, and approaching the coast again 
near San Francisco bay. Dwellings more or 
less suggesting our standard Asiatic type 
are found over this whole province. Their 
distribution, so far as the literature indicates 
it, is not continuous. Correspondence in 
form is in some cases slight, but in others 
very close, amounting almost to identity. 
This area nowhere touches the preceding 
one. It is in fact separated by a consider- 
able gap, by the distance, that is to say, sep- 
arating Kodiak island from the Ts'Ets'a'ut 
(see map). This latter tribe have a form 
of dwelling which at one season of the year 
is entered through the smoke-hole. It is 
covered with bark, and is not underground. 
In this case the resemblance to the Asiatic 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





I 



20 


NATIVE HOUSES 




structure is certainly remote. The first 
genuinely underground dwelling which we 
encounter in traveling southeastward from 
Kodiak island is described in a passage 
referring to the Carriers, or Takulli, on 
Babine agency in northwestern British 
Columbia. "Some of them live/' says 
Wilkes, "in excavations in the ground, 
which they cover with earth, leaving only 
an aperture in the roof, which serves both 
as an entrance for themselves and a vent 
for the smoke." From the Carrier tribe 
we have a more or less continuous distribu- 
tion of such underground houses, extending 
clear to the territory of the Miwok, just 
north of San Francisco bay. The groups in 
this area for which underground houses 
have been reported are shown in the tabu- 
lation headed "Area 2" below. 

Of the houses in this list, the Thompson 
River form and one of the Maidu forms are 
practically replicas of the Asiatic structures 
mentioned at the outset of this discussion. 
The form used by the Southern Maidu 
resembles the distant Asiatic house more 
closely than it resembles the houses used by 




INDIAN NOTES 



AREA TWO 


21 


nearby divisions of the Maidu. It may well 
be remarked at this point that absolute 
structural identity is not to be looked for 
in houses. All divisions of the Maidu used 
semi-subterranean dwellings, of one general 
character. Yet the framework in the 
Maidu forms is put together according to 
quite different schemes. It would be almost 
absurd to assume that these structures were 
independently invented. Considering the 
hit-and-miss character of the data with 
which we are dealing, the demonstrated 
resemblances over this whole large area 
must be significant. 

In our tabulation only four interior Salish 
tribes appear. Would we be justified in 
reaching the conclusion, on the basis of this 
evidence, that all the interior Salish tribes 
had the underground house? We would 
not. It is, however, a fact that all the 
interior Salish did have it, a statement for 
which Boas is authority (1890, p. 663). 
Probably this underground type of house is 
of much more common occurrence than the 

<^cpt ttPYPr\ rpfprpnrp^ in flip lifp^ptnrp wnnlrl 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





22 


NATIVE HOUSES 




indicate. The conclusion can hardly be 
avoided that we are dealing with a case 
of diffusion, over this one definite area,, 
at least. 

A glance at the map will show that the 
tribes we have just referred to have a some- 
what curious distribution. They extend 
over an elongate area which in the north 
strikes away from the coast, passes in]and 
for a long distance, and returns to the 
coast again at San Francisco bay. 

The next area for consideration is that 
occupied by the coast tribes of this same 
general region. The area we are about to 
consider is hemmed in by the one we have 
just discussed. The houses in this coastal 
region are quite different in many ways 
from those just treated; in fact, they are 
usually spoken of as an "entirely different" 
type. They differ in this, that instead of 
running up toward a center, forming a 
dome, or cone, they assume a rectangular 
form, with a ridge-pole. They are made, 
moreover, of planks, instead of from such 
materials as split logs, poles, brush, or 
thatch. In no case are they earth-covered 




INDIAN NOTES 



i 



PLANK-HOUSES 


23 


AREAS 3, 4, 5. RECTANGULAR PLANK- 
HOUSES OE THE PACIFIC COAST 

Probably the first question to be settled 
is this : Are all the rectangular plank-houses 
of the coast tribes, from southern Alaska 
to northern California, similar; or do we 
find a number of types? Differences can 
easily be discovered as we pass from tribe 
to tribe along the coast. Previous observ- 
ers have already broken this region into 
sections, each one being characterized by a 
peculiar form of house. Thus Boas points 
out, in a classical paper, that the Haida 
and Tlingit have houses of one type, with 
three roof-beams on each side of the central 
line, while the Tsimshian and Kwakiutl 
employ another style of construction, with 
only two such beams (Boas, /, 582). The 
Nootka and Coast Salish house is again dif- 
ferent. Their houses assume a " shed" form, 
in place of the gabled construction; and have 
an enormous length, in some cases exceed- 
ing a thousand feet. When we cease to 
regard minor differences, however, the situ- 
ation as regards all these types of houses 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





24 


NATIVE HOUSES 




seems fairly simple. The list given below 
(Area 3) will indicate the distribution of 
the gabled form found among the Tlingit. 
Haida, and other northern tribes, as far 
south as the mainland Salish of British 
Columbia. 

Many of the tribes in this southern area 
build a variety of shelters for use in differ- 
ent seasons of the year, or in different situa- 
tions, or for various purposes. This is a 
matter which may be safely set aside for 
our present purpose. The type of house 
discussed in the tabulation may be regarded 
as the typical structure in this region. 

In the area around the Straits of Juan de 
Fuca we encounter another type of struc- 
ture. It is quite sharply variant from the 
one just discussed. This new type has the 
"shed 1 ' roof mentioned above, and is char- 
acterized by dimensions which are almost 
titanic. The distribution of this type is 
shown in the tabulation referring to Area 4. 

South of the Straits of Juan de Fuca we 
encounter gabled forms, similar to those we 
found in Area 3 (Tlingit, Tsimshian. and 
neighboring tribes) . Such forms are con- 




INDIAN NOTES 



PLANK-HOUSES 


25 


tinuously encountered in traveling south- 
ward from the Quinault until we come to 
the tribes about Humboldt bay in northern 
California. South of that point they are 
replaced again by other forms, particularly 
by conical houses of poles, covered with 
earth. The distribution of gabled houses 
over this southern half of their area of dis- 
tribution is shown in the tabulation cover- 
ing Area 5. 

Certain conclusions are strongly suggested 
by these data. In the first place, the occur- 
rence of plank-houses over this last-named 
region is manifestly due to diffusion. The 
distribution, so far as available information 
is concerned, is not continuous; but it is 
so nearly continuous that a hypothesis of 
independent invention for any given tribe 
would seem quite artificial. In a more 
general way it is noteworthy that the suc- 
cession of forms from north to south, 
Alaska to California, is as follows: (1) 
gabled, (2) shed-like, (3) gabled. There 
are apparently a few tribes about the 
Straits of Juan de Fuca which employ shed 
forms exclusively. These tribes are the 




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26 


NATIVE HOUSES 




Nootka, Makah, Quilliute, Songish, and pos- 
sibly a few additional Salishan groups. 
North and south of these tribes, gabled and 
shed forms are in use, side by side, over 
considerable areas. There is, however, a 
noticeable transition, in both directions, to 
the use of gabled forms, which are the only 
forms reported from the remainder of the 
coast. The resemblance between the ga- 
bled houses used in the north and those used 
in the south is too close to be the result of 
accident. In the south, as in the north, 
such structures have ridge-poles, sometimes 
paired. In the central region the house has 
no ridge-poles, the roof slanting in one direc- 
tion only. In the south, as in the north, 
the end of the house is toward the beach; in 
the central area one long side of the house 
parallels the beach. In the north and 
south there is characteristically one entrance, 
sometimes two (a front and a rear door). 
In the central area there is often a series of 
openings along the front side, plus at least 
one opening in the rear, with still other 
openings in the ends. The house of the cen- 
tral region is, on the whole, of simpler con- 




INDIAN NOTES 



PLANK-HOUSES 


27 


struction (I am not speaking now of size). 
There is historical evidence that they have 
improved rapidly in recent generations. 
Captain Cook, for example, speaks of the 
rudeness and the helter-skelter character of 
the structures he examined at Nootka sound 
in 1778. Such charges I have not heard made 
against the houses of the Tsimshian or of 
other northern tribes, or against the tribes of 
northern California. As elsewhere pointed 
out, 4 the situation can be most readily ex- 
plained on the assumption that an intrusive 
style of architecture has appeared along 
the coast in the central area. The facts 
suggest that the Salish, in migrating into 
their present neighborhood, brought along 
from the interior, possibly from the Pla- 
teau, notions of crude and limited forms of 
architecture. Apparently these intrusive 
peoples rapidly acquired the use of planks 
from the coast peoples, who evidently pos- 
sessed, even centuries ago, a highly-devel- 
oped technique in woodworking. It seems 
that they were more deliberate, however, 
in taking over the Coast form of house. 
This would account for the fact that they 




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I 



28 


NATIVE HOUSES 




build plank-houses which retain a peculiar 
form. If this assumption is true, the 
Nootka have meantime fallen under the 
influence of their Salish neighbors, borrow- 
ing from them this simpler style of archi- 
tecture. On Puget sound several forms of 
house have been simultaneously in use: 
one of them the "shed" form, another a 
modified shed-like structure, and the third 
a gabled form similar to that used along 
Columbia river and among the tribes to the 
southward. The fact that so many forms 
were in use on Puget sound for identical 
purposes at one and the same time, cannot 
readily be accounted for. 

A general similarity underlying all these 
structures, whatever the form of the roof, 
can hardly be denied. They are all made 
of planks, split from trees by identical 
methods. The rectangular form is always 
preserved, whatever the vagaries observ- 
able in the roof construction. Moreover, 
all these houses are identical in one curious 
feature, namely, in possessing a pit. Pits 
are mentioned here and there in connection 
with houses, over the whole area, from 




INDIAN NOTES 



PLANK-HOUSES 


29 


Alaska to California. Such excavations were 
used around Puget sound, where village- 
sites are in many cases marked even yet by 
the depressions of old house-pits. 

This point is also brought out by Harlan I. 
Smith in his well-known paper on the 
Archaeology of the Gulf of Georgia and 
Puget Sound. "House sites are some- 
times indicated in the shellheaps by an 
embankment surrounding a large rectan- 
gular level space. These . . . have 
been obliterated at older sites." 5 Around 
Puget sound the native term for " village- 
site," tcetca-a'U l % means literally a "collec- 
lection of house pits" {tea, pit; alt u , house). 
From a comparative standpoint, the most 
important point about these pits is that they 
are of no conceivable use. No Indian has 
yet been seen who could advance an expla- 
nation of why his people made pits for 
their houses. They are of little use for 
protection. In all these houses the occu- 
pants sleep on a sort of shelf above the sides 
of the pit. In the Puget Sound area and 
among all the tribes to the northward, 
u bunks" or sleeping platforms were built 




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30 


NATIVE HOUSES 




which elevated the sleepers still more. 
Under such conditions the "pit" becomes a 
character of very considerable importance 
in classifying structures. To put it briefly, 
all the facts seem to point to the conclusion 
that we have the whole way along this coast 
one type of house. That house is a rec- 
tangular plank structure, with a pit, modi- 
fied at the central part of the region by 
intrusive influences. 

THE POSSIBLE RELATIONS OF THE RECTANGU- 
LAR PLANK-HOUSE TO THE CONICAL 
PIT -DWELLING 

We have discussed now two forms of hab- 
itations, one a conical earth-covered struc- 
ture with a pit, the other a rectangular 
plank structure with a pit. The distribu- 
tion of the first, or conical house, might be 
represented by the arc of a circle, which 
strikes inland from the coast in the north, 
trends southward, and finally comes to the 
coast again in northern California. The 
second form of house is distributed over 
just exactly that area where the first form 
is not encountered. The two tvpes, conical 




INDIAN NOTES 



RELATIONS 


31 


and rectangular, are never found existing 
together. It would seem to be a plausible 
idea that the conical or " interior" type has 
in the coast region been changed by modifi- 
cation into the rectangular form. In other 
words, the facts would be quite readily ex- 
plained on the assumption that in the coast 
region (possibly somewhere about the mouth 
of Fraser river) an original form of house 
became very much modified, along with the 
development of a highly-specialized wood- 
working culture. Woodworking evidently 
became very long ago an important and 
typical industry in this region, resulting in 
the making of boxes, dugout canoes, cere- 
monial objects, dishes, and planks. Wide 
planks are produced with relative ease in 
this region. This point might, by the way, 
be over-emphasized. The process is really 
an intricate and difficult one. Perhaps it 
would be better to say that the possibility 
exists of making wide and long planks, a 
matter which hinges on the fact that certain 
trees like the cedar grow to great sizes. 
The external situation resulted naturally, we 
may say, in using planks for the building of 




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32 


NATIVE HOUSES 




houses. Houses made of planks are almost 
certain to take a rectangular form. The 
rectangular house of the coast region with its 
characteristic "pit" might be interpreted 
as a squared-off pit-dwelling, fashioned 
out of planks. The ridge-pole or gabled 
construction and the rectangular shape 
would be easily understood as secondary 
modifications brought about by the use of 
planks. 

This conclusion is quite in line with facts 
brought to light some years ago by Harlan 
I. Smith. As the result of his very interest- 
ing investigations in the archeology of the 
region, he discovered that the archaic work 
in stone in the coast and the interior re- 
gions is much more similar than is the mod- 
ern work of the same regions. 6 

If our present inferences are sound, an 
exactly parallel condition exists in regard 
to houses, the older styles over the whole 
area being much more uniform than are the 
recent forms. 

There is other evidence that the present 
form of plank-house may have been pre- 

LcucU III IIIC IlibLOiY UI LIlc died UV d LOIllLaJ 




INDIAN NOTES 



RELATIONS 


33 


earth-lodge entered from the top. An 
example is the curious tale spoken of by 
Boas: 

A certain man's wife is stolen by the Killer- 
whales, and taken to their village under the sea. 
The fellow ties a stone to his feet in wrath and 
jumps overboard, determined to go to the ocean 
bottom and get his wife back. "Down below" 
he encounters an acquaintance, a Shark, who 
lives as a slave in the Killer- whales' house. 
This slave arranges with the outraged husband, 
that as he goes in the house-entrance with a 
basket of water, he will purposely stub his toe 
and spill the water on the fire. While the house 
is filled with steam, the man is to pounce upon 
his wife and carry her off. 7 

This incident would seem to imply that 
the original story-teller had in mind a sub- 
terranean dwelling, in which the entrance 
is directly above the fireplace. In the 
plank structures of the present day, a dis- 
tance of forty feet separates the entrance 
from the place where the fire burns. The 
incident might of course be explained by the 
supposition that the people telling the story 
had immigrated into the coast region from 
an area where the subterranean house was 
in use 5 or that the myth itself, in whole or 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





34 


NATIVE HOUSES 




in part, had been imported from such an 
area. Whatever the value of the myth as 
evidence, the presence of pits in the houses 
of this whole region, both along the coast 
and in the interior, can most readily be 
explained as the result of the diffusion of 
the idea from some one source. The distri- 
bution of these somewhat similar and ap- 
parently related types of houses is shown 
on the accompanying map. 

PIT -STRUCTURES IN OTHER AREAS 

Structures with pits are to be found in 
only three other localities in the whole 
of North America, or, for that matter, in 
the whole of the New World. These three 
vicinities are (1) the Plains; (2) the South- 
west; (3) southern California. The forms 
differ considerably in these three areas. 
In the Southwest the "typical" subterra- 
nean structure is an underground cere- 
monial chamber, the so-called kiva. It 
has a flat roof, not a conical one, and is 
used almost purely for religious purposes. 
It is entered by a ladder through a hatchway 
in the ceiling. It is sometimes round, some- 




INDIAN NOTES 



THE KIVA 


35 


times rectangular, and its walls consist in 
part of masonry. In some cases it is not 
subterranean, but authorities seem to agree 
that the circular, subterranean form is the 
characteristic and original one. 8 

It has often been suggested that the kiva 
is a survival of an ancient form of dwelling. 
Cushing apparently made the first formal 
suggestion along this line. Fewkes has 
adopted the idea, and states it categori- 
cally as an established fact. 9 It is inter- 
esting to note that remains of ancient 
underground dwellings have recently been 
discovered in this area by Hough. The 
Southwest is an area in which underground 
structures are certainly characteristic and 
important. 

When we turn to the Plains region we 
find that underground or semi-underground 
structures are again very characteristic. 
The widely distributed earth-lodge of that 
region is a conical edifice of poles and logs, 
heavily covered with earth. It is widely 
distributed and frequently described. In 
some cases these earth-lodges are built 

nvpr Hppn nifc; T^pmpinQ nf Hwpllincrcj mm- 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





36 



NATIVE HOUSES 



pletely underground have recently been re- 
ported from eastern Nebraska by Sterns. 
According to his description they were rec- 
tangular in outline, had a flat roof, and 
were entered by a ladder. It would seem., 
therefore, that the ancient structures of the 
Plains were much more similar to the an- 
cient structures of the Southwest than are 
the modern ones. The geographic distri- 
bution of underground and semi-under- 
ground structures in these two areas, and 
in southern California, is therefore a matter 
of some interest. Their distribution in the 
Southwest is indicated schematically in the 
tabulation below (Area 6). 

The nature and history of the earth- 
lodges, or hogdns, built by the Navaho, is 
a matter which might be of interest here. 
The facts of their distribution, however, 
add little light to the present discussion. 
They are entirely included within the area 
of typical pueblo and cliff-dweller struc- 
tures. Wissler is inclined to view the ho- 
gdn as a distant relative of the Plains tipi. 
Altogether the hogdn is a matter which 
preferably may be left to one side. 



INDIAN NOTES 



PIT-STRUCTURES 


37 


In southern California underground dwell- 
ings were reported by the first explorer 
along the coast, Juan de Cabrillo, and have 
been discussed more recently by Putnam. 
At the present time traces of these struc- 
tures are perfectly manifest on the old shell- 
heaps, in the form of imposing funnel-shape 
depressions. The senior author of the 
present paper has seen them, in company 
with Mr Leonard Outhwaite, on Santa 
Cruz island. Schumacher, in digging around 
these sites some years ago, found some of 
the planks which lined the pit. Earth- 
dwellings occur somewhat irregularly from 
the Channel islands to the Colorado river, 
where they were used by the Mohave within 
the historic period. In this area, tribes 
which do not have earth-covered dwellings 
with pits invariably use at least the semi- 
subterranean earth-covered sweat-house, 
employed, to be sure, for ceremonial pur- 
poses only. This whole matter is illus- 
trated by the table given below (Area 7) . 

The point of greatest interest here is the 
fact that the pit-structures of southern Cali- 
fornia find their closest analogues in the 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





38 


NATIVE HOUSES 




Southwest. Indeed we can hardly go wrong 
in assuming that, in regard to pit-structures, 
southern California and the Southwest 
form one area. In southern California, as 
in the Southwest, pit-dwellings are part of a 
complex which includes the art of pottery. 
It is thus quite likely that the pit-structure 
peoples of southern. California were not 
under the influence of their neighbors in 
northern California. An area absolutely 
without pit-structures or potsherds, recent 
or ancient, intervenes, There is, on the 
other hand, an almost continuous distribu- 
tion of pit-structures, and a perfectly con- 
tinuous distribution of pottery, leading from 
California to central Arizona. There are 
certain ceremonial matters also, such as a 
color symbolism for the four directions, and 
the use of religious intoxicants (specifically 
the jimson-weed, Datura meteloides) which 
unmistakably link these two areas. So far 
these areas, southern California and the 
Southwest, seem to stand together, without 
any connection to the northward. The 
question of pit-structures on the Plains 

hprnmp^ p rrnrdinflv p mpffpr of crrppf in- 




INDIAN NOTES 



PIT-STRUCTURES 


39 


terest. Pit-structures of a very clear type 
are reported from the latter area, and the 
well-known "earth-lodge," of very wide dis- 
tribution, sometimes takes a form which 
could be readily described as a pit-dwelling. 
Cases have been reported where they con- 
tained excavations as much as six feet deep; 
where they had a heavy covering of earth; 
and where a ladder consisting of a notched 
log led up to a large, square smoke-hole. It 
is obvious that such earth-structures may 
have been independently invented on the 
Plains. The idea of pit-dwellings may, on 
the other hand, have passed thither from 
the Southwest. A third possibility, which 
at first glance seems somewhat forced, is 
that such pit-structures came into the South- 
west via the Plains, from some northern 
source. It is very unlikely that they went 
the other way around the circuit, that is, 
down the Pacific coast, across to the South- 
west, and into the Plains, because the hiatus 
lij central ^aiiiornia is a positive one. oucn 
structures certainly never existed there, 
unless the earth- covered sweat- house is to 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





40 


NATIVE HOUSES 




be regarded as a modified form of pit- 
dwelling. 

A hasty inspection of the literature gives 
certain data on the distribution of pit- 
dwellings and " earth-lodges" in the Plains 
area. This matter is illustrated in a tabu- 
lation below (Area 8). 

The curious fact comes to light that the 
well-known grass-lodge in some of its forms 
is built over a pit. This feature is clearly 
indicated in Doyle's description 10 of the 
Wichita lodge. The pit is \\ feet deep in 
the locality he describes (Fort Sill, Okla- 
homa). Fuller knowledge of these lodges 
than we possess, including the facts of their 
distribution, would be necessary for a dis- 
cussion of their possible relationships. 

It is obvious from these imperfect data 
that we encounter a great many permuta- 
tions of form and combinations of elements 
in these Plains structures. Yet one or two 
points obtrude themselves quite clearly. 
One is that the " earth-lodge" of the Plains 

111 bUlilc L>1 lib lUllllb lb LVcll 111 lllOU-Cill lllllcb 

a bona fide pit-dwelling. Anciently, pit- 
dwellings of a very thorough-going type 




INDIAN NOTES 



PIT-STRUCTURES 


41 


existed here. A second point is that, geo- 
graphically, the area does not link very 
clearly with either the Southwest or the 
Northwest area, the probability remaining 
that the explanation of Plains pit-dwellings 
is to be found in one direction or the other. 
The hypothesis of borrowing and modifica- 
tion is more plausible than the notion of 
independent invention. The latter as- 
sumption would imply that of all the tribes 
and nations in the New World, from Green- 
land to Cape Horn, the only groups to 
devise pit-structures were certain tribes 
living next-door to regions where pit- 
structures were in use. 

There is a possible inference, therefore, 
that the Plains tribes received the earth- 
covered pit-dwelling from the Northwest. 
If that is the case, they probably passed it 
on to the Southwest, and through the 
Southwest to the peoples of southern Cali- 
fornia. The interesting fact develops now 
that they apparently passed it on, also, to 

/-> av f o m 'f" r*i r"» InriT^rr in f ha o t*ao ao cf /~vf f ri o 
LclLctlll LllUcb llvlUg ill LllC dlCd CdbL Ul LllC 

Mississippi. 

Inspection of Mr BushnelPs recent paper 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





42 


NATIVE HOUSES 




on Native Villages and Village Sites east 
of the Mississippi brings to light several 
tribes in the area east of the Mississippi 
which possessed underground dwellings. It 
will be noted at once that such dwellings 
seem to have been widely distributed in 
this area. The tribes possessing under- 
ground shelters are shown in a tabulation 
below (Area 9). Complete citations to the 
original authorities will be found in Mr 
BushnelFs monograph. 

CONCLUSION 

The fairest inference from the available 
evidence seems to be that the pit-lodges 
at least of extreme western North America 
represent the spreading of an idea from one 
common center. Especially when the simi- 
larities of these structures are considered in 
connection with their distribution, such a 
conclusion seems to be strongly suggested. 

It may be well to state that the data are 
unsatisfactory, not only for the conclusions 
here proposed, but for any other conclu- 
sions. It seems that the facts already in 
our possession give a fairly clear account of 




INDIAN NOTES 



CONCLUSION 


43 


themselves, considering especially the lim- 
ited amount of material to which appeal can 
now be made. There is a fair prospect that 
fuller information would tend to make our 
conclusions more plausible. That one archi- 
tectural idea, namely, the erection of houses 
over a pit, has spread over the entire west- 
ern half of the continent seems to be a fair 
presumption. 

Whether or not the type of dwelling was 
ultimately derived from Asia is more doubt- 
ful. An hypothesis of Asiatic derivation 
seems, however, simpler than any other. 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





s 



44 


NATIVE HOUSES 




TABULATIONS 
AREA 1 

The Aleutian Islands, together with Western Alaska 






Description 
applies to: 


Unalaska 

Unalaska 

Unalaska 
Aleutian ids. 

Aleutian ids. 


Features of the Structure 


Earth-covered pit-dwelling, en- 
tered through the smoke- 
hole. 

Earth-covered pit-dwelling, en- 
tered through the smoke- 
hole. 

Round mud house, door in top. 

Pit-dwelling, roof covered with 
earth, entrance through the 
smoke-hole. 

Pit-dwelling, frame of whale- 
ribs, turf-covered, entered 
through roof by notched 
ladder. 


%i 
"3 


1787 

1802 

1816 
1805 

1877 


Authority 


Coxe, p. 103 

Billings, p. 260 

Campbell, p. 73 
LangsdorlT, vol. 
2, p. 32 

DalL, p. 83 




INDIAN NOTES 



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60 


NATIVE HOUSES 




Area 4 — Concluded 






Description 
applies to: 


Puget Sound 
Puget Sound 
Puget Sound 


Features of the Structure 


" Houses like those of Nootka 

Sound." 
House set in the ground 2 ft. 

or more. 
Houses have shed roof. 


S3 


1792 
1893 
1895 


Authority 


Vancouver, p. 123 

Wickersham (a), 

p. 47 
Costello, p. 19 




INDIAN NOTES 



AREA 5 



61 



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An ha 5 — Continued 


^ 1 ^ ^ 


Description 
applies to: 


Chchalis 

Chinook 
Chinook 


Features of the Structure 


Gabled house, wall-planks ver- 
tical, door in side-wall [sic], 
move plank for escape of 
smoke. 

Gabled house, pit 1 ft. deep, 
two tiers of bunks around 
walls. 

Gabled house, vertical wall- 
planks support ridge-pole 
with help of additional posts, 
roof-planks horizontal with 
edges overlapping doorway 
is round hole at end of house, 
move plank for escape of 
smoke, wooden platform and 
bunks around walls. 




1913 
1857 


A uthority 


Curtis, vol. 9, 
pp. 45-58, 157 

Gibbs, p. 215 

Swan, p. 110 




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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abbot, Henry L. 

Explorations for a railroad route from 
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practicable and economical route for a rail- 
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1857. 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe 

The native races [of the Pacific States]. 
Five volumes. [These form volumes 1-5 
of a thirty- volume series entitled The 
Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft.]a San 
Francisco, 1886-1888. 

Bandelier, A. F. 

Final report of investigations among the 
Indians of the southwestern United States, 
carried on mainly in the years from 1880- 
1885. Papers of the Archceological Institute 
of America, American series, iv, part 2, 
Cambridge, Mass., 1892. 

Beechey, Captain F. W. 

Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and 
Beering's Strait [sic] to cooperate with the 
Polar expeditions, performed in his Maj- 
esty's Ship Blossom, in the years 1825- 
1828. Two volumes, London, 1831. 

Billings, Joseph 

An account of a geographic and astronom- 
ical expedition to the northern parts of 
Russia . , . and the islands in the 

ILdSlcrn vJLcdil birclLIllIlg L(J Lilt; r\IIlcriL<AD 




INDIAN NOTES 



i 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 


79 


coast ... in the years 1785 to 1794 
London, 1802. 
Boas, Franz 

(a) The houses of the Kwakiutl Indians. 
In Smithsonian Institution, Proceedings of 
' the U. S. National Museum, vol. 11, 1888, 
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(6) First general report on the Indians 
of British Columbia. In Report of the 
committee . . . appointed to inves- 
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of the Dominion of Canada. Report of 
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tion for the Advancement of Science held 
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(c) Second general report on the Indians 
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(d) Fifth report on the Indians of Brit- 
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the sixty-fifth meeting, held . . . in 
. . . 1895, pp. 523-592, London, 1896. 

(e) The social organization and secret 
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Report of the U. S. National Museum for 

1895, pp. 311-738. 

(/) Sixth report on the Indians of Brit- 
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mittee . . . appointed to investigate 
the . . . northwestern tribes of the 
Dominion of Canada. Report of the sixty- 
sixth meeting of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science, held . . . in . . . 

1896, pp. 569-591. 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





80 


NATIVE HOUSES 




(g) The Kwakiutl of Vancouver island. 
American Museum of Natural History, 
Memoirs, vol. 8, part 2 (Reprinted from 
Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Ex- 
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Leyden, 1909.^ 

(h) Tsimshian mythology. Smithsonian 
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of American Ethnology, for 1909-1910, pp. 
29-1037, Washington, 1916. 

Bog oras, W. 

The Chukchee: material culture. Mem- 
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History, vol. 11, part 1 (Reprinted from 
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Journal of a voyage up the River Mis- 
souri performed in 1811. In Early Western 
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Bradbury, John 

Travels in the interior of America in 
the years 1809, 1810 and 1811; including a 
-* description of upper Louisiana . . . 
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r Reuben Gold Thwaites, editor, -vol. 5, 
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Burney, Captain James 

A chronological history of northeastern 
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1819. 




INDIAN NOTES 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 


81 


Bushnell, D. I., Jr. 

Native villages and village sites east of 
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Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 69, 
Washington, 1919. 

Cabrillo, Juan de 

[For a journal of his voyage, recorded by 
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Calkins, C. G. 

The Northwest Corner. The World To- 
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Campbell, Archibald 

A voyage round the world from 1806 to 
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present state of the Sandwich islands and 
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Carlson, Frank 

Chief Sealth. The Bulletin of the Uni- 
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Catlin, George 

Letters and notes on the manners, cus- 
toms and condition of the North American 
Indians. Written during eight years travel 
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1836, 1837, 1838 and 1839. London, 1841. 

Chamberlain, A. F. 

Report on the Kootenay Indians of south- 
eastern British Columbia. In Report of 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





82 


NATIVE HOUSES 




the committee appointed to investigate 
. . r the northwestern tribes of the 
Dominion of Canada. Report of the sixty- 
second meeting of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science, held : . . in 
. . . 1892, pp. 549-615, London, 1893. 

Clark, W. P. 

The Indian sign language, with brief 
explanatory notes of the gestures taught 
deaf-mutes in our institutions for their 
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the peculiar laws, customs, myths, super- 
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war signals of our aborigines. Philadelphia , 
. . . 1885. 

Collisox, W. H. 

In the wake of the War Canoe . . . 
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COLVOCORESSES, GEORGE M. 

Four years in a government exploring 
expedition . . . [An account of the 
Wilkes Expedition.] Xew York. 1852. 
Coltox, M. R. F. and H. S. 

The little-known small-house ruins in 
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Cook, Captain Jaaies 

A voyage to the Pacific Ocean . . . 
to determine the position and extent of the 
west side of North America ... in 
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INDIAN NOTES 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 


83 


COSTELLO, J. A. 

The Siwash; their life, legends and tales. 
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Cox, Ross 

The Columbia river; or, scenes and adven- 
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. . . 2 vols. London, 1832. 

Coxe, William 1 ^ 

Account of Russian discoveries between 
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the conquest of Siberia, and the history of 
the transactions and commerce between 
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1787. 

CULBERTSON, THADDEUS A. 

Journal of an expedition to the Mauvaises 
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Fifth Annual Report of the Smithsonian Insti- 
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Curtis, Edward S. 

The North American Indian; being a 
series of volumes picturing and describing 
the Indians of the United States and 
Alaska, written, illustrated and published 
by Edward S. Curtis, edited by Frederick 
Webb Hodge, foreword by Theodore Roose- 
velt, field research conducted under the 
patronage of J. Pierpont Morgan. Twenty 
volumes [11 volumes issued to date], pub- 
lished in the years 1907-1916. 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





84 


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Ccjshing, Frank H. 

A study of Pueblo pottery as illustrative 
of Zuni culture-growth. Smithsonian In- 
stitution, Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau 
of American Ethnology, for 1882-83, pp. 
473-521, Washington, 1886. 

Dall, W. H. 

On succession in shellheaps of the Aleu- 
tian islands. U. S. Interior Department, 
Geographical and Geological Survey of the 
Rocky Mountain Region, J. . W. Powell, 
Geologist in charge. Contributions to North 
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Washington, 1877. 

Denny, Emily Inez 

Blazing the way, or, true stories, songs 
and sketches of Puget sound and other 
pioneers - [sic]. With illustrations by the 
author and from authentic photographs. 
Seattle, 1909. 

Dlxon, Roland B. 

(a) The northern ' Maidu. American 
Museum of Natural History, Bulletins, vol. 
17, pp. 168-174, New York, 1902-1907. 

(b) The Shasta. Ibid., pp. 413-419. 
Dorse y, James Owen 

Omaha dwellings, furniture, and imple- 
ments. Smithsonian Institution, Thirteenth 
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 
for 1891-1892, pp. 269-288, Washington, 
1896. 
Doyle, W. E. 

Indian forts and dwellings. Annual Re- 
port of the Smithsonian Institution . . . 
for the year 1876, pp. 460-465, Washington, 
'1877. 




INDIAN NOTES 



i 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 


85 


Drake, Sir Francis 

The course which Sir Francis Drake 
held from the haven of Guatulco in the 
South sea on the backe side of Nueva 
Espanna to the northwest of California 
. . . In Hakluyt, Richard, The prin- 
cipal navigations, voyages, trafhques, and 
discoveries of the English nation . . 
In 12 volumes. Glasgow and New York, 
1903-1905. 

Eells, Myron 

The Twana, Chemakum and Clallam 
Indians of Washington Territory. An- 
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for 1887, pp. 605-681, Washington, 1889. 

Elliott, Henry 

Ten years acquaintance with Alaska, 
1867-1877. Harper's Monthly Magazine, 
vol. 55, no. 330, New York, 1877. 

Elliott, T. C. 

See Work, Iohn. 

Farrand, Livingston 

Article "Nez Perces," In Handbook of 
American Indians, Smithsonian Institution, 
Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 30, 
part 2, Washington, 1910. 

Fewkes, Jesse Walter 

(a) Antiquities of the Mesa Verde Na- 
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Ethnology, Bulletin 41, Washington, 1909. 

(b) Preliminary report of a visit to the 
Navaho National Monument, Arizona. 
Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ameri- 
can Ethnology, Bulletin 50, Washington, 
1911. 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





86 


NATIVE HOUSES 




(c) Prehistoric villages, castles and tow- 
ers of southwestern Colorado. Smithsonian 
Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, 
Bulletin 70, Washington, 1919. 

Fletcher, Alice C. 

Article " Earth-lodge," in Handbook of 
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part 1, pp. 410-411, Washington, 1907. 

Fletcher, Alice C, and LaFlesche, Francis. 
The Omaha tribe. Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the 
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1906, pp. 15-654, Washington,' 1911. 

Fraser, Simon 

Journal of a voyage from the Rocky 
mountains to the Pacific coast, 1808. In 
Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Xord- 
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Premiere serie, pp. 156-221, Quebec, 1889. 

Gibbs, George 

(a) . . . on the Indian tribes of the 
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practical and economic route for a railroad 
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Contributions to JSorth American Ethnology, 




INDIAN NOTES 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 


87 


vol. 1, part 2, pp. 157-309, Washington, 
1877. 

Goddard, Pliny Earle 

(a) Life and culture of the Hupa. 
University of California, Publications in 
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pp. 3-88, Berkeley, 1903. 

(b) The Indians of the Southwest. 
American Museum of Natural History, 
Handbook Series, no. 2, New York, 1913. 

Greiner, Ruth. 

See Waterman, T. T., and Greiner. 

Hale, Horatio 

Ethnography and Philology . . . In 
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der the command of Charles Wilkes, 
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1846. 

Handbook of American Indians north of 
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Frederick Webb Hodge. 2 volumes, Wash- 
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Henry, Alexander 

The manuscript journal of Alexander 
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Hill-Tout, C. 

T-irificVi NJnrfh AmpnV? T'Tip T^pt 

.DllLlbll 1> Ul Lil ^TllliCl ILd. -L, -L 11C X Cll 

West, the home of the Salish and Dene. 
" Native Races of the British Empire" 
Series. London, 1907. 




AND MONOGRAPHS 





88 


NATIVE HOUSES 




Hodge, F. W. 

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NOTES 


97 


torical Quarterly. The Washington Uni- 
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NOTES 

1. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ameri- 
can Ethnology, Bulletin 30. 

2. The Koryak, pp. 462-466. 

3. Boas, 1890. 

4. Indian Houses of Puget Sound, Indian 
Notes and Monographs (9), New York, 1920. 

5. Smith, 1906, p. 433. 

6. Smith, pp. 439, 441. 

7. Boas, Tsimshian Mythology, in Smith- 
sonian Institution, Bureau of American Eth- 
nology, 31st Annual Report, p. 840. 

8. Hodge; Fewkes (&), p. 23. 

9. Cushing, 1882, p. 476; Fewkes (b), p. 25. 

10. 1876 p. 461. 

11. Thompson, 1798, pp. 227, 229 (Man- 
dan); Brackenridge, 1911, p. 115 (Arikara); 
Catlin, 1832, v. 1, p. 92" (Mandan); Maximilian, 
1833, v. 2, p. 270 (Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara); 
Culbertson, 1850, p. 116 (Arikara); Morgan, 
1881, p. 126 (Mandan, Hidatsa); Fletcher and 
LaFlesche, 1911 (Omaha). 




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